An Alternative Approach to Municipalization: The Transition of Human Waste Disposal in Hangzhou, 1900s-1940s

Urban reforms in modern China included the municipalization of human waste disposal, which played a crucial role. However, previous studies often equated municipalization with nationalization and monopolization. This study examines Hangzhou, a major city in the Yangtze Delta, where the human waste industry was well established, and analyzes the structural changes in human waste disposal from the 1900s to the 1940s. In the 1910s, the municipality attempted to nationalize and monopolize the human waste industry but was met with resistance and ultimately failed. Nevertheless, the reform successfully introduced a new model of human waste disposal, which involved government supervision and the participation of private collectors, and this model became popular after a compromise was reached. Beyond financial gains, the transition was also shaped by various underlying structural factors.