Isotopic evidence of long-lived volcanism on Io

Jupiter’s moon Io hosts extensive volcanism, driven by tidal heating. The isotopic composition of Io’s inventory of volatile chemical elements, including sulfur and chlorine, reflects its outgassing and mass loss history, and thus records information about its evolution. We used millimeter observations of Io’s atmosphere to measure sulfur isotopes in gaseous SO ₂ and SO, and chlorine isotopes in gaseous NaCl and KCl. We find ³⁴ S/ ³² S = 0.0595 ± 0.0038 (equivalent to δ ³⁴ S = +347 ± 86‰), which is highly enriched compared to average Solar System values and indicates that Io has lost 94 to 99% of its available sulfur. Our measurement of ³⁷ Cl/ ³⁵ Cl = 0.403 ± 0.028 (δ ³⁷ Cl = +263 ± 88‰) shows that chlorine is similarly enriched. These results indicate that Io has been volcanically active for most (or all) of its history, with potentially higher outgassing and mass-loss rates at earlier times.